by Subhuti Dharmananda, Ph.D., Director,
Institute for Traditional Medicine,
Portland, Oregon
from: dear abas nyak agil mamih:
16 Januari 2010 jam 16:55
BACKGROUND
Turtles and tortoises are part of a group of reptiles called chelonians (from the Greek word for these animals, chelona), which includes a third type, called terrapins. There is considerable interchange of the terms turtles and tortoises (as occurs for other reptiles, such as crocodiles and alligators), with "turtle" being the most commonly used generic for chelonians. Turtles are specially adapted to aquatic life, with a streamlined body shape and long feet with flippers; they spend most of their time in water. Some turtles live in the sea, others in fresh water. Tortoises, on the other hand, are land dwellers; they lack webbed feet, but have instead rounded feet suited for walking on land, though they live near bodies of fresh water. Terrapins (from the Indian word meaning "a little turtle") divide their time between land and water; they are always based in fresh water areas (rivers, ponds, lakes).
In China, turtles and tortoises have long been used for food and medicine, and their shells were once a critical part of divination (they would be heated and the cracks interpreted). For medicine, the top shell (carapace) or the bottom shell (plastron) is used, depending on the animal. Tortoises, and most of the turtles, have hard protective shells made up of about 60 bones covered by plates called scutes. However, there is a "leatherback turtle" from the sea (Demochelys coriacea) which doesn't have the hard shell, but instead has a leathery skin supported by tiny bones (this is an adaptation that allows diving into deep sea water). There are also soft shelled land turtles, such as the widely used Far Eastern turtle Pelodiscus sinensis (also known as Amyda sinensis), which lives along rivers (it is considered by some to be a terrapin).
In Chinese medicine, several types of turtles and tortoises have been used in the past, though currently only two are extensively relied upon. In a 1982 book reviewing rarely used animal medicines (Zhongguo Yaoyong Dongwuzhi), the following species were mentioned (these are primarily substitutes for the two main species):
Tortoises
1) Platysternon megacephalum (big-headed turtle)
2) Clemmys bealei (Beal's eyed turtle)
3) Clemmys mutica (Asian yellow pond turtle)
4) Cuora flavomarginata (yellow-margined box turtle)
5) Cuora trifasciata (golden coin turtle)
6) Ocadia sinensis (Chinese striped neck turtle)
7) Testudo elongata (elongated tortoise)
8) Testudo horsfieldi(horsfield's turtle;Russian tortoise)
9) Testudo impressa (impressed tortoise)
These have been phased out recently, though golden coin turtle, used in treatment of skin diseases, is still being weeded out of south China food and medicine products. The others have simply fallen into disuse; all are considered endangered. By contrast, the two main turtles used in Chinese medicine have been farmed for years and remain available, with shell material sold under the Chinese names guiban and biejia.
Under the common name designation "tortoise shell," with the Chinese name guiban (or Gui Ban), the plastron of the farmed Reeves' turtle (Chinemys reevesii) is used (it is semi-aquatic, so is often called a turtle and is usually classed as a terrapin). Under the common name designation "turtle shell," and the Chinese name biejia (or Bie Jia), the carapace of the farmed Chinese softshell turtle is the source (the old name, often found in the Chinese medical literature, is Amyda sinensis; the new name Pelodiscus sinensis, is used in most zoological designations; a different species, Amyda cartilaginea, is restricted from collection and a major target of conservation efforts). The shells used for medicine are usually a byproduct of food production.
It is widely known that sea turtles are endangered, and, in fact, numerous chelonians are endangered due to loss of habitat and extensive use of the animals for food (in 1996, 7.7 million pounds of turtles were imported to Hong Kong alone for food consumption). In order to protect endangered species, their trade (import and export across national borders) is regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). National organizations are responsible for regulation of collection and use of species within each country; for example, in China, the CITES Management Authority works to enforce CITES compliance and a variety of conservation organizations, both governmental (national and provincial) and private, work to monitor and manage the resources. Since 1998, China has been increasingly strict in monitoring trade in turtles and tortoises.
A report from the Turtle and Tortoise Newsletter (2000, 5:15-16, published by the Chelonian Research Foundation), described the situation with Chinese animals, in the article, Recent Actions by the People's Republic of China to Better Control International Trade of Turtles. Members of the CITES Management Authority of China and the Wildlife Conservation Society International Program (U.S.) described the situation as follows:
The People's Republic of China is the largest consumer country of freshwater turtles and tortoises (hereafter "turtles") in the world. The demand for turtles in China for food and medicinal purposes has fueled an enormous export of turtles from countries throughout Asia. This international trade has been implicated as the major conservation threat for most species of Asian turtles. As China is the largest consumer country of turtles, its demands ultimately determine the size and dynamics of this trade.
In 1981, China became Party to CITES, and since 1988 some species of turtles have been afforded protection under national and provincial legislation in China. We optimistically report here that the Chinese government has become aware of the consequences of Chinese trade demands on wild turtle populations in Asia, and as a result has recently implemented new legislation and enforcement actions to improve control measures on the trade of turtles in China.
In 1998, the CITES Management Authority of China and the Customs Agency cooperatively implemented a new piece of legislation called the "Commodity Code of Wild Fauna and Flora for Import and Export," which required that all imported and exported turtles in China be accompanied by permits and be inspected by customs officials.
For three weeks in January 2000, national and provincial government authorities in the provinces of Guangdong, Fujian, Guangxi, and Yunnan carried out a special enforcement action called "No.2 Action." Under this action, 51,664 policing officials investigated illegal trade and transportation of wildlife at international airports, key roads, wildlife trading companies, large wildlife restaurants, and at least 8,370 markets. While this action dealt with wildlife trade in general, a special emphasis was placed on turtles and tortoises in Guangdong Province. As a result of the No. 2 Action, 264 cases of illegal wildlife trade were found, a number of illegal traders were fined or arrested, and 40,748 animals (of which many were turtles) were confiscated. As a precedent, the No. 1 Action was an enforcement action carried out in April 1999. It focused on the illegal trade of Tibetan antelope in the provinces of Xinjiang, Qinghai, and Tibet Autonomous Region.
In June 2000, the CITES Management Authority of China implemented the "Notice of Strengthening the Live Reptile Import and Export Management," which prohibited the export and re-export of all species of turtles from China, except the two farmed species Chinese soft shell Pelodiscus sinensis and Reeves' turtle Chinemys reevesii.
In June 2001, the CITES Management Authority of China implemented the "Notice of Strengthening the Trade Management on Turtle and Tortoise." This notice suspended the import of CITES-listed turtles from countries without export quotas, required each separate piece of cargo in a turtle shipment to carry a permit, and limited the number of ports that could import turtles. The notice also prohibited the import of all species of turtles from Cambodia, Indonesia, and Thailand. The CITES Management Authority of China recently sent several letters to range and transit countries in Southeast Asia requesting information on management regulations, laws, and trade control measures concerning turtles in those countries. Turtle imports were banned from Cambodia because the Cambodian Management Authority did not respond to these inquiries, from Thailand because Thailand has banned the export of all wildlife, and from Indonesia owing to confusion as to whether the Indonesian CITES Management Authority or a newly constructed aquatic resources department maintains jurisdiction over issuing export permits for turtles. Under this notice, the CITES Management Authority of China also affirmed a renewed commitment to verify the legitimacy of foreign permits that accompany imported shipments of turtles.
In April 2001 at Zhangjiajie Nature Reserve in Hunan Province, the CITES Management Authority of China and the General Administration of Customs cosponsored a training and consultation course for port officials to improve their inspection and enforcement abilities concerning wildlife, including turtles.
Presently, the CITES Management Authority of China is preparing an identification manual to approximately 80 of the most frequently traded species of turtles in Asia. The manual introduces the taxonomy, identifying characteristics, biological habits, conservation status, and trade status of these species using simple language and photographs. The manual will be distributed in China to wildlife management authorities and enforcement, port, and customs officials for assisting with on-site inspection and identification of shipments containing turtles. It is hoped that this manual will assist with the conservation and management of turtles in China and elsewhere in Asia.
Clearly, problems concerning the overexploitation of Asian turtles in China are not all solved. However, these recent actions are important first steps toward curbing the international trade of turtles in China. It is expected that China's role in combating the conservation crisis of Asian turtles will continue to strengthen.
It is clear that the two farmed species, the ones used for guiban and biejia, are still being permitted for both domestic use and export from China, while severe restrictions are made on the collection and export of other species. In the recent CITES Meeting in Bangkok in October 2004, the section on Conservation of and Trade in Tortoises and Freshwater Turtles indicated that:
China has taken significant measures to reduce levels of authorized trade. The exportation for commercial purposes of all species of tortoises and freshwater turtle (except Pelodiscus sinensis and Chinemys reevesii) was suspended in June 2000. Since June 2001, the importation of CITES-listed tortoises and freshwater turtles has only been allowed from countries with annual quotas and through designated ports of entry, while imports from Cambodia, Indonesia and Thailand have been suspended. Since July 2002, the import of specimens with carapaces of less than 10 cm have been suspended to control alien species and diseases. The commercial import and export of all live and dead specimens (the latter meaning fresh, cold, frozen or dried bodies, carcasses and meat products) were suspended in 2003, with the exception of Trachemys scripta elegans, Macroclemys temminckii, and Pelodiscus sinensis. China also plans to consider submitting proposals to the 13th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to include all its native tortoises and freshwater turtles in Appendix III in as far as they are not included in the other Appendices.
Thus, the Chinese control over the endangered species of turtles and tortoises has been acknowledged as tightening, and is being monitored by members of CITES. Among the species remaining in trade under the auspices of regulatory agencies are the ones that are being used for guiban and biejia.
According to Tortoise Trust, farming of Pelodiscus sinensis has been very successful in Asia. As an example, they mention that "softshell farms in Thailand have produced as many as six million hatchlings of P. sinensis in a single year." In a Chinese news report (June 29, 1999), it was noted that Ding Xiaoming, an official with the Fishery Bureau of the Ministry of Agriculture, would not rule out the possibility that overproduction in domestic turtle breeding centers has outstripped market demand, hence the fall in price. "The total number of turtle breeding farms in China is not known, but they have multiplied as a lot of farm households have rushed into the lucrative business over recent years," Ding said in an interview with China Daily. In fact, the number of farms had been counted, but was growing at such a rate that the old data were insufficient to determine the level of production. In a report in the Star Telegram, January 27, 2001, it was noted also that "U.S. turtles, some of them grown on farms, are legally shipped to China."
In a 1998 technical report on Sustainability of Wildlife Use in Traditional Chinese Medicine by China Biodiversity, it was noted that there were 548 farms for Chinemys reeves in four provinces in China. Two provinces were reported to have nearly 21,000 animals on 26 farms (over 800 animals/farm) with 5,000 animals reproduced annually. Two other provinces were reported to have a total of 260 metric tons of these animals in 522 farms (reproduction figures not available); the figures correspond to farms with more than 800 animals each, on average. Data was also provided on the average annual consumption of Chinemys reeves plastron by 13 major traditional Chinese medicine factories for the five year period 1990-1995: 430,880 kg (215 metric tons per year on average). Chinese exporters must obtain permits in order to export Chinemys reeves turtles or turtle parts.
After the rapid increase in turtle consumption during the 1990s, serious concerns were raised about conservation efforts. However, after a series of evaluations, disclosures (a video filmed by US turtle experts in 1997 in two south China food markets showed more than 10,000 turtles and tortoises, from 17 species, were traded in just two days), and meetings from 1996-2002, much greater control has been attained. The two Chinese medicine items used in the West, guiban and biejia, are obtained from farms and legally traded.
SOURCES
Conserving China's Biodiversity: Sustainability of Wildlife Use in Traditional Chinese Medicine, by Guo Yinfeng, et al. (Endangered Species Scientific Commission, PRC):http://www.chinabiodiversi
Turtle and Tortoise Newsletter (2000; 5:15-16): Recent Actions by the People's Republic of China to Better Control International Trade of Turtles, by Meng Xianlin, et al.: http://www.chelonian.org/t
Turtles in Crisis: The Asian Food Markets by James E. Barzyk, published by Tortoise Trust: http://www.tortoisetrust.o
China Daily: Low price hurts turtle breeding, June 29, 1999 (scroll down for article): http://www.people.com.cn/e
ECES News: Endangered Species: Reptiles:
Asian Turtle Trade Working Group: Conclusions from the Workshop on Trade in Tortoises and Freshwater Turtles in Asia, December 1-4, 1999, Phnom Penh, Cambodia: http://www.traffic.org/tur
CITES 19th Meeting of the Animals Committee, Geneva, Switzerland, August 18-21, 2003: Development of mid- to long-term conservation measures for tortoises and freshwater turtles: http://www.cites.org/eng/c
from: dear abas nyak agil mamih:
16 Januari 2010 jam 16:55
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